Моделирование системы сцинтилляционных детекторов эксперимента TAIGA тема диссертации и автореферата по ВАК РФ 01.04.16, кандидат наук Вайдянатан Арун

• Вайдянатан Арун
• кандидат наук
• 2023

Оглавление диссертации кандидат наук Вайдянатан Арун

Contents

Chapter 1. Introduction and background

1.1. Cosmic radiation

1.2. Cosmic ray energy spectrum

1.3. Acceleration mechanisms

Chapter 2. Extensive Air Shower

2.1. Electromagnetic cascade

2.2. Hadronic cascade

2.3. Detection of cosmic rays

2.4. Scintillation detectors

Chapter 3. TAIGA experiment

3.1. Tunka Cherenkov detector array

3.2. HiSCORE

3.3. IACT

3.4. Scintillation array

Chapter 4. Monte-Carlo Simulation Packages

4.1. GEANT4

4.2. CORSIKA

Chapter 5. Simulation model development

5.1. The EAS model

5.2. The selection of secondary particles

5.3. The scintillation array model

5.4. Comparison of simulation with experimental data

Chapter 6. Optimization study

6.1. Simulation of EAS and scintillation counters

6.2. Analysis using station and event efficiency

6.3. Detector arrangement

6.4. Soil absorber thickness

6.5. The lowest detectable energy

6.6. Station arrangement

Chapter 7. Particle identification study

7.1. j/p separation methods

7.2. Study of TAIGA-Muon station arrangement

7.3. The simulation results

7.4. The data analysis using ANN

7.5. Tuning hyper parameters of ANN

7.6. Identification stability at different EAS energies and angles

Conclusion

Bibliography

List of Figures

List of Tables

Введение диссертации (часть автореферата) на тему «Моделирование системы сцинтилляционных детекторов эксперимента TAIGA»

Introduction and background

For more than two centuries scientists have been using electroscopes to identify the presence of electric charge in a body or matter. Charles-Augustin De-Coulomb was one of them. While using the instrument, he found that it discharges gradually at a room conditions because of unknown action [1]. He neglected this unknown effect, assuming an insulation problem. Some other scientists were curious to know why that happened. Faraday in 1835 [2] and Crooks in 1899 [3] investigated this unknown effect in more detail.

Meanwhile, the discovery of X-rays by Roentgen in 1895 was crucial for the whole scientific world [4, 5]. In his experiment, he was using a particular type of cathode ray tube. At that time, Roentgen was also interested in another question - he noticed a faint glow in a fluorescent screen caused by an unknown reason. He suggested that there was some invisible radiation (X-rays) coming out from the cathode tube, started to study this radiation, and, besides other effects, discovered the ionization property of the radiation. While traveling through the air, this radiation made the air a conductor of electricity. The curiosity spread and Henry Becquerel also got interested in those phenomena. He started to think of the connection between X-rays and visible light [6]. As a result of experiments with uranium salt, spontaneous radio activity was discovered in 1896. That built extra curiosity because there was ionizing radiation other than X-rays and it could also cause the discharging of the electroscope.

By that time it was well established that discharging of a charged electroscope is not a matter of bad insulation - even when well insulated, the electroscope discharged completely, though slowly. As a result, it was concluded that the ionizing radiation was coming from the outside of the insulated area. Possible explanation was given by Kurz in 1909 [7]. He put forward three points for possible sources of this radiation: 1) the radiation is coming from the Earth crust, 2) it is present in the surroundings because of the atmospheric radioactive effect, or 3) the radiation is of an extraterrestrial origin. He underlined the possibility of radiation coming from the Earth crust, which could be explained by the recently discovered radioactive elements present there. If so, the

discharge intensity should dependent on the height over the Earth surface.

German Jesuit priest Theodor Wulf, living in Netherlands, was also working as a physics teacher. In 1909, he planned a trip to visit Eiffel tower in Paris with his improved version of the electroscope [8]. His intention was to measure the radiation intensity at several heights of the tower. Later on, Italian physicist Domenico Pacini went to the gulf of Genoa to study the intensity variation with the depth [9]. If the ionization radiation was originated from the Earth crust, its intensity would increase with underwater depth as the absorption decreases. In contrast, Pacini found reduction in the rate and concluded that the ionization radiation was coming from above the sea level toward the Earth crust. He also gave a theoretical explanation based on the absorption rate provided by water.

At the same time, Gockel also gave a similar view on this topic [10]. He confirmed Pacini's conclusion with balloon flights. For this experiment, he launched a balloon to a height of 4500 m and checked the intensity of the radiation. There was no reduction in the intensity, and he concluded that the radiation was coming from above the Earth surface. In 1911-1912, Victor Hess made several balloon flights, searching for a better explanation [11, 12]. He calculated the absorption coefficient for gamma quanta in the air medium and then measured the absorption rate at several heights. The whole experiment showed reduction in the radiation intensity, but it was much smaller then expected. Moreover, at a height of around 5 km above the sea level, the intensity was higher than that at the surface. On the whole, that suggested that the radiation was not from the atmosphere of the Earth but originated from the outside of Earth. Kolhorster repeated the same experiment at a higher altitudes up to about 9 km [13].

Millikan and Bowen modified the electroscope by adding photographic film and automatic recording facility, and a balloon was sent to a height of around 15 km [14]. They confirmed that the origin of radiation was extra-terrestrial. In addition, Millikan together with Cameron performed measurements at various underwater depths in a lake [15]. As a result, Millikan named this radiation as cosmic radiation.

Later on, the Geiger-Muller counter became popular. It can detect a single particle so accurate measurements of ionizing radiation of very low intensities become possible. Clay found correlation between the latitude and level of the ionization suggesting its

dependence on the strength of the Earth magnetic field [16, 17]. In addition to that, he suggested there might be a component other than gamma rays but Millikan opposed that idea. Bethe and Kolhorster gave explanation for the properties and nature of cosmic rays [18]. Compton studied that more deeply and widely [19] and stated a dependence between the intensity and latitude. Moreover, the presence of charged particles and their nature were explained. Millikan disagreed with that. Millikan was disturbed by all those views, and so he started a new experiment. In 1933, he admitted the cosmic rays to contain charged particles. The discovery of muon and positron present in the cosmic rays helped the field of astroparticle physics to become a new separate branch of physics. Another milestone was the independent discovery of extensive air shower by Bruno Rossi and Auger [20].

The detailed and fascinating history of development of astroparticle physics can be found in 'Cosmic ray history' by Lev Dorman and Irina Dorman, Institute of history of science and technology, Russian academy of science [21].

1.1. Cosmic radiation

Primary cosmic ray particles originate from various sources (to be discussed later), travel through the outer space. The majority of the primary cosmic particles is hydrogen (about 84%) and helium nuclei (about 12%) [22,23]. Among the heavier element nuclei carbon, oxygen, and iron are dominant. Stable isotopes of Ne, Mg, Si, S, Ar, Ca, Li, Be, B, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, and Mn are also found in the cosmic rays. High energy gamma quanta comprise only about 1% of the cosmic ray flux.

When looking at anti-particles in the cosmic rays, all scientists feel like seeing a question mark. Anti-matter occurrences in the identified primary cosmic particles are few and far between [24, 25]. Is Universe made up of only matter? Is there any anti-matter region in the Universe? These questions need proofs and evidences. At the same time, anti-particles are produced by interactions such as pair production, which gives electron and positron pairs.

Magnetic field affects the propagation of charged cosmic particles. Charged particles of a GeV range in the Earth vicinity are mainly from the Solar wind and got trapped by the

Earth magnetic field, drift to the Earth magnetic poles producing Auroras. On a galactic scale, weak but extended magnetic field makes the angular distribution of cosmic rays around the Earth uniform for particles of up to PeV energy range. High-energy electrons, which change their direction because of magnetic field, may lead to synchrotron photon formation [23].

1.2. Cosmic ray energy spectrum

The sources of cosmic rays are divided into intergalactic and extra-galactic. Most low-energy cosmic rays in the Earth's vicinity are from the nearest source in our galaxy, the Sun. In 1934, W. Baade and F. Zwicky proposed a hypothesis that supernovae could be a source of cosmic rays [26]. Later in 1948, Horace W. Babcock noticed that magnetic variable stars might be a cosmic ray source [27]. The origin of all galactic cosmic particles can be explained on the basis of core-collapse supernova only if the remnant particles get accelerated. This was suggested by Ginzburg and Syrovatskii in the 1960s [28]. Several types of cosmic particle sources are identified, such as supernovae explosions, quasars, active galactic nuclei, and gamma-ray bursts [29]. The search is still going on, wide and deep, with better understanding of particles and their interactions. Currently, several experiments are being conducted, to study cosmic particles in a wide energy range. Based on these experimental data, the spectrum of cosmic rays is measured as shown in Figure:1.1. As one can see, it has several peculiar features: two 'knees' at 3 x 1015 eV and at 1017 eV, and a so called 'ankle' at 1018'5 eV. The exact reason for these 'knees' and 'ankle' and the mass composition of high-energy primaries is still being discussed.

The origin of the 'ankle' can be explained by the mechanism, suggested by Greisen, Zatsepin, and Kuzmin (GZK mechanism) in 1966, soon after experimental discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. This highly uniform background radiation is supposed to be a remnants of the Big-Bang. The far-red-shifted freely roaming photons are isotropically spread all over the Universe. The importance of this background radiation in the context of cosmic rays studies was explained in 1966 by Greisen, Zatsepin, and Kuzmin. They came to a conclusion that an intergalactic proton with an energy of

Figure 1.1: Spectrum of all particles from listed experimental results vs. energy per particle[30]

more than 50 EeV (5 x 1019 eV) has to interact with the cosmic microwave background with a sufficiently high cross-section [31, 32]. This threshold value now known as a the GZK limit, or pion production threshold. The cosmic microwave background photons and an ultra-high energy proton interact and produce pions by photo-disintegration or photo-production:

P + Icmb ^ A+ ^ n + ft+,

p + icmb ^ A+ ^ p +

ft

p + icmb ^ p + e+ + e ,

where A+ is the intermediate resonance.

A few years later, Wdowczyk conducted an investigation on propagation of cosmic gamma [33], concluding on a similar situation with the proton. The CMB is transparent only for photons with energy less than 1014 eV. This results in an electron and positron pair and can lead to muon pairs, also at ultra-high energy.

The galactic magnetic field plays an important role in the distribution of primary cosmic particles in the Universe. It can trap and deflect cosmic particles. Evolution of this magnetic field should be studied for understanding of the sources of cosmic rays. These points suggest that most of lower energy cosmic particles that hit the Earth atmosphere

originated from the our own Milky Way. Uncharged gamma quanta (and neutrinos) can travel through the galaxy undisturbed thus reaching the Earth from the extragalactic sources. Nevertheless, charged particles of extreme energies retain a correlation between the their direction of arrival and origin of ultra-high energetic particles [34]. As reported by the Auger collaboration, an active galactic nucleus (AGN) can be an origin of such a cosmic rays. They found correlation in 21 of 55 events that originated within 3.1 degrees to a known AGN that is 75 Mpc away from the Milky Way.

1.3. Acceleration mechanisms

Independently on the acceleration mechanism, simple argument can be used in order to express upper bound of energy which can be reached in acceleration process. Suppose a region of acceleration with characteristic dimension R and magnetic field B. The idea is that charged particle can be accelerated inside such region up to the energy, where the Larmour radius (r = 30qZB , where E is the particle energy in eV, Z is the atomic number, B is the magnetic field strength in gauss) reaches critical value of R/2.

The model can be expressed in terms of so called Hillas plot which is given in Fig-ure:1.2. It shows a simple idea that to accelerate charged particles to high energies either large magnetic fields or large sources of acceleration are necessary. Various candidates of cosmic accelerators are placed in the plot: neutron stars, white dwarfs (both are represents of direct acceleration), supernova remnants (SNR), active galactic nuclei, lobes of radio galaxies, colliding galaxies etc. The higher the up-right position of the spot in the plot, the higher energies can be reached in the corresponding candidate source.

Charged particles can be accelerated by the electric field (direct acceleration) or they can gain energy via random scattering in magnetized plasma (Fermi statistical acceleration). In case of direct acceleration the electric field can be induced by time changing magnetic field. This conditions could be realized in rotating of accretion disk or magnetic neutron star. Direct acceleration alone cannot reproduce observed power law spectrum of cosmic rays. Consequently, it probably does not significantly contribute to the total spectrum of cosmic rays. However, no definite conclusions are drawn yet and this mechanism is still intensively studied.

Figure 1.2: Hillas model of cosmic ray sources [36].

Stochastic acceleration: In 1949 E. Fermi suggested statistical mechanism "according to which cosmic rays are accelerated in interstellar space of the galaxy by collisions against moving magnetic fields".

Interstellar and intergalactic space filled with a combination of relatively uniform magnetic field with regions of chaotic magnetic field. The field strength is normally higher at interstellar clouds or plasma clouds. Such strong fields will be like a magnetic mirror, as indicated by E. Fermi [37]. Charged particles get reflected from the region of strong magnetic field. This scattering of particle plasma cloud is elastic in nature. This magnetic interaction and scattering is dependent on the motion of the plasma cloud. Charged particle can either gain or lose energy in the scattering, however, it could be shown that on average there is net energy gain AE is proportional to the square of the cloud velocity v:

AE

~E

3 ^

:1.1)

where ¡3 = ^. According to this model, due to the second order of cloud velocity, the

acceleration process will take more time for particles to attain ultra-high energy (see complete calculation in [38]).

Fermi mechanism predicts differential power law spectrum dN/dE ~ Ea. However, the power parameter a tends to be larger than the measured one.

Shock wave acceleration: The original stochastic acceleration model can be modified in order to describe more powerful acceleration which takes place in supernovae shocks. The modified model is generally known as the shock acceleration mechanism. The relative energy gain in this case is:

With the compression factor q, which is the ratio of the velocity of the collision front to the velocity of the plasma [39, 40].

The shock acceleration happens during explosion of a supernova. The explosion ejects the stellar matter outwards, like in a shock wave. The stellar or interstellar plasma has low density, but the explosion increases the pressure and density. The magnetic field present in the shock wave drives the particles. In comparison with the Fermi acceleration mechanism, the main difference is the direction. The shock wave only travels outward.

Due to the first order of the shock wave velocity in equation:1.2, this mechanism provides much more efficient way of acceleration. The power law index a is now consistent with observations a ~ 2.7. The acceleration in supernova remnants is limited only to energies less than 1015 eV. This value roughly coincides with position of the the second 'knee' in the cosmic ray spectrum. Consequently it is a possible explanation of the spectrum steepening at the 'knee'. More energetic particles should be produced by some other sources outside our Galaxy.

(1.2)

Chapter 2

Extensive Air Shower

Particles that have survived while travelling through the outer space and passed through the Earth magnetosphere, hit the atmosphere. A cosmic primary particle makes successive inelastic collisions with the Earth atmosphere molecules along its trajectory producing secondary particles [41]. A series of interactions and decay of primary and secondary particles will take place in the general direction of the primary momentum vector and propagate longitudinally. This whole set of processes caused by the initial cosmic particle produces a large number of secondary particles at the sea level, see Figure 2.1, is called an extensive air shower (EAS). The phenomenon was discovered in 1934 by Bruno Rossi [42]. In the pre-accelerator era, such a showers were the only laboratory to study and discover new particles. For instance positron, muon (^), mesons like charged and neutral pions and kaons (K), and barions like lamda (A0), sigma (£+), and xi (S-) were observed in particle showers produced by cosmic rays.

Primary Particle

I

interaction with air nuclei

muonie component neutrinos

hadronic cascade

VVyV p, n,Jt ", K, nuclear fragments

hadronic component

. _ -K",K . „

(1- y y /1

fi+ e" e+ e" e+ e"

\\\ radiation

electromagnetic component

Figure 2.1: Diagram of EAS with different components [43].

At the sea level, all the particles of the EASs can be attributed into one of the three category: electromagnetic, hadronic, or muonic component. The relative abundance of particles in each group depends on the nature of primary particle that produced the EAS - high energy gamma quanta, proton or atomic nuclei [44]. At the ground level,

the lateral distribution of secondaries depends on the energy, zenith angle, height of the first interaction, and type of the primary particle. These effects can be utilised for the identification of type of incident particle. The lateral distribution of various EAS components and longitudinal distribution of the EAS particle density are shown in Figure 2.2.

Core Distance [ m ] Atmospheric Depth [g/cm2]

Figure 2.2: Lateral distribution of EAS components vs. core distance (left). Secondary particle density vs. atmospheric depth (right)(Energy:E1<E2<E3) [45].

As result of interaction with the medium, secondary particles of the EAS can produce Cherenkov photons, fluorescent radiation, and radio waves. The Cherenkov radiation is associated with charged particles with a velocity greater than the speed of light in the medium. In the air the Cherenkov light is emitted mainly in the near UV and visible parts of the spectrum. The air fluorescence is generated because of nitrogen abundance in the atmosphere. The resulting radiation will be in the ultraviolet or a near-by spectral region. Registration of Cherenkov and fluorescent components in the EASs is a difficult task and in generally can only be performed on moonless and cloudless nights.

The radio-waves that are present in extensive air shower were first postulated theoretically [46-49]. There are several radio detection systems working as part of the as-troparticle experiments.

Заключение диссертации по теме «Физика атомного ядра и элементарных частиц», Вайдянатан Арун

Conclusion

The main results of this research work are listed below:

• A Monte Carlo simulation program package has been developed for the simulation of EAS and interaction with scintillation arrays of the TAIGA experiment (Tunka-Grande and TAIGA-Muon installations). Now the package is used for the on-going research by the members of the TAIGA collaboration.

• The arrangement of the surface counters of the TAIGA-Muon system has been analyzed for maximization of the station detection efficiency. It has been shown that the station efficiency weakly depends on the arrangement of the surface detectors. This and technical aspects taken into account, the surface counters of the TAIGA-Muon stations were positioned on the observation site.

• The soil thickness was chosen so as to yield optimal identification of gamma- and proton-induced EASs. It has been shown that the optimal soil thickness for this task is around 2 m. This value was taken into account during placement of the underground counters of the TAIGA-muon stations.

• The lowest energy threshold for the TAIGA-Muon station was studied. According to the simulations, cosmic ray showers with energies above 50 TeV can be detected by scintillation counter arrays in the conditions of the TAIGA experiment.

• The arrangement of the TAIGA-Muon stations has been optimized with the use of event efficiency. For an EAS detection of ~30% efficiency at 100 TeV with at least three stations, the distance between the stations should be around 100 m. An efficiency of ~100% can be achieved with a 50 m spacing at 100 TeV. At the low-energy range, an external trigger from an optical station can be utilized.

• As part of the optimization of the TAIGA-Muon station for the energy region below 1 PeV, two identification approaches were studied: the 'threshold' and 'ratio'

methods. The 'ratio' method showed a better suppression factor compared with the 'threshold' method.

• A neural network method was suggested for differentiation of a high-energy gamma-induced extensive air shower (EAS) from a background proton-induced EAS. This method allows using together two factors for EAS identification: the number of secondary muons and steepness of the FPR function

• The identification efficiency for gamma and proton EASs has been analyzed in the energy range from 1 PeV to 10 PeV. EASs with energy of 7.0 PeV - 10.0 PeV show a proton-induced EAS identification efficiency of more than 98% along with a gamma-induced EAS identification efficiency of ~50%. This result confirms that a twofold increase in the detection area allows achieving a gamma/proton suppression coefficient of more than 1000 in this energy range.

In the energy range of 100 TeV - 1 PeV, the 'ratio' method would enable identification of primary particles for a higher granularity of the muon detector array, with distances between stations not exceeding 30 m. The neural network analysis also gives a good result with the existing array. This result confirms that a twofold increase in the detection area allows achieving a gamma/proton suppression coefficient of more than 1000 in this energy range.

This required additional funding. By now, three new TAIGA-Muon stations have been deployed, each having eight surface and eight underground counters. In two years, it is planned to add about 200 scintillation detectors (10 more stations) to the existing ones. The study with implementation of external trigger from the TAIGA experiment systems has started.

The neural network method can be modified via inclusion of HiSCORE data with data from the scintillation array. This can enable identification of mass composition of primary particle. A preliminary study is conducted with application of a simulation model. More simulation studies have to be performed in this joint study of scintillation array and HiSCORE stations. This thesis presents only the main results. The studies conducted with the simulation model are published in the following articles.

Список литературы диссертационного исследования кандидат наук Вайдянатан Арун, 2023 год

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