Электрическое управление оптоэлектронными свойствами графена для детектирования терагерцового и инфракрасного излучения/ Electrical Control of Graphene’s Optoelectronic Properties for Terahertz and Infrared Photodetection тема диссертации и автореферата по ВАК РФ 00.00.00, кандидат наук Титова Елена Игоревна

• Титова Елена Игоревна
• кандидат наук
• 2024

Оглавление диссертации кандидат наук Титова Елена Игоревна

Contents

List of Figures viii

List of Tables xix

Introduction

Graphene for Long-wavelength Radiation Detection

Aim of the work

The research objects of the dissertation

Proposition for The Defense

Scientific Novelty

Theoretical and Practical Importance

Presentations and Validation of Research Results

Publications

Personal Contribution

Thesis Structure

1 Graphene for Infrared and Terahertz Detection: a short review

1.1 THz and IR Photodetection

1.2 Graphene and its Properties

1.2.1 Bilayer Graphene

1.2.2 Graphene Plasmons

1.3 Key Figures of Merit in Photodetectors

1.4 Photodetection Mechanisms in Graphene

1.5 Graphene for THz Photodetection

1.6 IR polarization-sensitive detectors on graphene

1.7 Hexagonal Boron Nitride and its Properties 28 1.7.1 Optical Properties of hBN

1.8 Graphene-hBN Structures for Near-Field Optics

2 Fabrication and Measurement Techniques

2.1 Fabrication of van der Waals heterostructures

2.1.1 Mechanical exfoliation and stacking of 2D materials

2.1.2 Transfer of CVD graphene

2.1.3 Fabrication of electrical contacts to 2D heterostructures

2.2 Characterization and research methods

2.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy

2.2.2 Electrical characterization

2.2.3 IR measurements

2.2.4 THz measurements

2.2.5 Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy

3 Sub-Terahertz Photodetection at p-n Junctions in Gapped Bilayer Graphene

3.1 Fabrication of three-gate transistor structures based on 2D materials

3.2 Measurements

3.3 Transport results

3.4 Sub-THz photoresponse

3.5 Theoretical details

3.6 Results and Perspectives

4 Polarization-Resolving IR Detector Based on CVD Graphene

4.1 Fabrication of field-effect transistors based on CVD graphene

4.2 Transport measurements

4.3 IR polarization-dependent measurements

4.4 Results and Discussion

4.4.1 Graphene-metal p-n junctions

4.4.2 Polarization resolving

5 Electrical Tuning of Ultranarrow Polaritonic Resonances Using Graphene

5.1 Fabrication of hBN nanoresonators on electrically gated graphene

5.2 Near-field measurements of hBN on electrically gated graphene

5.3 Near-field IR imaging of hBN nanoresonators

5.4 Electrostatic Tuning of PhP Resonance in h-BN Nanoresonator Using Graphene

Conclusion

List of Abbreviations

List of Symbols

References

A Route sheets

Введение диссертации (часть автореферата) на тему «Электрическое управление оптоэлектронными свойствами графена для детектирования терагерцового и инфракрасного излучения/ Electrical Control of Graphene’s Optoelectronic Properties for Terahertz and Infrared Photodetection»

Introduction

Graphene for Long-wavelength Radiation Detection

Infrared (IR) and terahertz (THz) radiation is of significant scientific and technological importance due to its unique properties and many potential applications. The boundaries of these ranges might appear somewhat blurry as different sources may cite varying values. Here we define mid-infrared and terahertz radiation as the electromagnetic waves with wavelength range 3 — 15 ¡m and 30 — 3000 ¡im, respectively. This corresponds to the frequency ranges 100 — 20 THz for mid-IR and 10 — 0.1 THz for terahertz ranges. Researchers generally prefer to work in terms of wavelength when discussing the IR range, and in frequency terms when referring to the THz range, the relationship between these quantities is written as A[im] ~ f Thz\ -

Detection of long-wavelength (IR and THz) radiation presents significant challenges due to the inherent limitations of both semiconductor and radio devices at these wavelengths. As we delve into the IR and THz spectrum from visible range, conventional semiconductor detectors face a decrease in performance due to reaching the limit of interband absorption. Traditional radio-frequency detectors also encounter problems because as the frequency increases, the RC-delays in the circuit increase, which distort the signal. This has resulted in a performance gap in device operation and sensitivity, often referred to as the 'THz gap', which poses a technical challenge in the field of long-wavelength radiation detection. However, long-wave radiation is useful for many fields of science and technology.

THz radiation is non-ionizing: it is safe for humans and other living beings, as it doesn't harm living tissues. The development of efficient THz detectors will ushering in a new era in communications and wireless technologies with incredible data rates that far exceed the limitations of existing wireless technologies [39, 40]. THz imaging is indispensable in the medical field [41], where it can help to distinguish between healthy and cancerous tissues based on their water content and different dielectric properties, which helps in cancer detection. In addition, THz imaging provides information about the depth and severity of burns, which facilitates proper treatment and healing. THz spectroscopy can identify biomolecules such as proteins and DNA, aiding disease diagnosis and drug development [42]. THz radiation is also in high demand in such clXGctS ctS defect inspection [43] and security [44].

IR radiation can penetrate things like fog, dust, and smoke that would obscure visible light [45].

This makes it useful for applications in search and rescue operations, or any situation where visibility is poor. IR radiation has the ability to carry information through air, making it vital in remote control technology for televisions, sound systems, and other devices [46, 47]. Similar to THz radiation, IR is also non-ionizing i.e., it doesn't carry enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules. This makes it safe for use in applications such as medical imaging [48]. The vibrational modes of many molecules lie in the IR range, so IR radiation interacts with molecular vibrations, which is crucial for its use in spectroscopy to identify and analyze chemicals [49]. Astronomy uses IR radiation to observe and analyze celestial bodies that are not visible in the normal spectrum of light due its ability to pass through cosmic dust [50]. IR radiation is also useful for heat detection [51, 52, 53].

Graphene has a unique combination of properties that makes it a promising material for detecting THz and IR radiation. Graphene exhibits high carrier mobility, which makes it possible to create fast IR and THz photodetectors based on graphene [13]. Because of its two-dimensional nature, graphene exhibits a pronounced dependence of the Fermi level on the transverse field, which leads to the possibility of electrostatic control of graphene properties, for example, the wavelength of two-dimensional plasmons in graphene [7]. Due to the high phonon energy (180 meV versus 36 meV

in GaAs) and low heat capacity, photo-excited hot carriers quickly heat other carriers and slowly

thermalized on the cold crystal lattice, making the photo-thermoelectric effect the main cause of detection in the simplest field-effect transistor structures based on graphene [14, 54]. Graphene has frequency-independent light absorption in the undoped state, but in the electrically doped state exhibits a dip in the mid-IR region associated with a decrease in interband transitions, and a peak in the THz region due to the Drude conductivity. However, when detecting is carried out by the photothermoelectric mechanism, interband transitions are not excited, so the absorption dip due to interband transitions does not affect photodetection in this case.

A graphene monolayer is a zero-bandgap semimetal, making graphene's resistance weakly dependent on temperature. In bilayer graphene, the band gap varies from zero to hundreds meV when a transverse electric field is applied [55], allowing a transistor non-linearity to be introduced into graphene-based structures. Due to the non-linearity of the transistor characteristic, the temperature dependence of the graphene resistance is enhanced, which leads, for example, to an enhanced bolometric photoresponse in gapped bilayer graphene [56]. Besides, terahertz photo-rectification at a tunnel p — n junction in gapped graphene has been shown to have excellent performance at cryogenic temperatures: responsivity as high as 4 kV/W, and noise iquivalent power as low as 0.2 pW/Hz1/2 [11]. However, the dependence of the photo-rectifying ability of graphene on the band gap has not been studied until now.

In addition to the radiation power that conventional photodetectors sense, electromagnetic radiation has additional degrees of freedom, one of which is the polarization angle. Polarization contains

a lot of unique information about surrounding objects and matter [57, 58], which is especially important in the IR region of the spectrum. Besides, the polarization of radiation can be used, for example, to increase the density of information when encoding it [59, 60, 61]. Despite the variety of polarization-sensitive materials [62, 63, 64, 65] and structures [66, 67, 68, 20], polarization resolution is not a trivial task, since it requires to distinguish between signal scaling due to power changes and polarization dependence.

To resolve polarization, several structures with selected polarization-sensitive directions, rotated relative to each other by a certain angle, are usually used. Examples of such structures include devices based on gratings [66], antennas [69], or nanowires [70, 71]. Polarization resolution can also be achieved by integrating directional nanoantennas with graphene [20, 68].

A recent proposal suggests the use of an electrical control signal to reduce the number of detectors in a polarization-resolving pixel and simplify circuitry by greatly altering the angle-dependence of photoresponse [72]. In Ref. [72], this dependence was essentially different for forward- and backward-biased photodiode based on black phosphorous/molybdenum disulphide 2d heterostructure (bias-selectable detector). After adding a proper control signal, just two rotated detectors are sufficient for design of polarization-resolving pixel. Of course, using bias current as a 'control' leads to large shot noise and increases the noise equivalent power. Usage of graphene-based devices for resolving radiation polarization can resolve many problems related with sensitivity, noises and complexity of device manufacturing [73, 74].

Hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) is often used as a support material in graphene-based transistors as it is an ideal encapsulating material for graphene due to its dielectric nature and close crystal lattices. However, hBN itself also exhibits interesting optical properties in the mid-IR range. It supports hyperbolic phonon-polaritons, which allow to compress electromagnetic radiation and manipulate it at nanoscales well beyond the diffraction limit [28]. Hyperbolic phonon-polaritons manifest themselves in the presence of a certain angle of out-of-plane propagation in the material, due to which standing waves can be observed in hBN flakes of nanometer thickness. Resonances associated with phonon-polariton modes can be used to induce high absorption in graphene. In Refs. [75, 76], a hBN resonator was combined with a graphene-based detector with induced p — n junction. This made it possible to increase the room-temperature responsivity to ~ 20 mA/W and reduce the equivalent noise power to 80 pW/Hz1/2 in the mid-IR range. It was shown that propagating phonon-polaritons hybridize with the intrinsic graphene plasmons [33], which makes it possible to tune the spectral position of the resonance by the gate. However, the interaction of confined in a nanoresonator phonon-polariton modes with graphene plasmons has not yet been studied, while phonon-polaritons confined in the resonator provide more freedom in controlling the electromagnetic field, and also demonstrate a greater degree of compression of the latter [77, 78].

Aim of the Work

The main goal of the research is to study the optoelectronic properties of graphene in IR and THz frequency ranges, focusing on three tasks:

• bandgap-dependent THz cryogenic detection in bilayer graphene;

• polarization-dependent IR detection at 'CVD graphene-metal' junction;

• the investigation of near-field IR response in 'graphene-hBN nanoresonator' polaritonic nanoresonators at different electron concentration in graphene.

The Research Objects of the Dissertation

The research objects were optoelectronic devices based on single- or bi-layer graphene. Several types of graphene-based field-effect transistors were fabricated and investigated. Electrical metal contacts were fabricated to the graphene layer, and silicon substrate was used as a bottom gate in all structures studied in this dissertation.

To study the terahertz photoresponse, transistor structures based on exfoliated bilayer graphene encapsulated in hexagonal boron nitride were used. The channel of such a transistor is connected to a THz broadband bow-tie antenna, which focuses THz radiation.

To study the infrared response, devices based on CVD graphene with drain-source contacts made of different metals were fabricated.

To study the near-field response, hBN squares placed on top of a graphene monolayer were used.

Proposition for The Defense

• The responsivity of sub-terahertz detectors based on p-n junctions in bilayer graphene increases when a band gap is induced by a transverse electric field. At a temperature of 25K and a band gap change from 0 meV to 20 meV, the responsivity increases from 3 to 20 times (depending on the detector design) and reaches 50 kV/W in voltage and 20 A/W in current, while the equivalent noise power drops to 36 fW/Hz1/2.

• The functional dependence of infrared photovoltage generated at the "metal-graphene" contact on the incident radiation polarization is governed by the charge carriers concentration in graphene: at a certain carrier concentration value, the photovoltage is polarization-insensitive; at other concentration values the photovoltage has a pronounced maximum if the incident electric field is perpendicular to the contact. Photovoltage measurements at these two carrier

concentration values allow for simultaneous determination of the power and polarization of the incident radiation.

• The frequency of electromagnetic resonance in "graphene - hexagonal boron nitride nanores-onator" structures depends on the carrier concentration in graphene due to the hybridization of graphene plasmon modes and boron nitride phonon-polariton modes. A change in carrier concentration from 2.5 • 1012cm-2 to 7 • 1012cm-2 via gate voltage causes a switch between two sequential longitudinal modes of the nano-resonator at a fixed resonance frequency of 1480 cm-1.

Scientific Novelty

All new results are summarized below:

• We experimentally investigated the sub-terahertz photodetection in bilayer graphene as a function of electrically induced band gap.

• We intestigated the rectification mechanisms in a sub-THz photodetector based on p-n junctions in gapped bilayer graphene. We shown that at cryogenic temperatures the dominant rectification mechanism is photothermoelectric, against with the features of another rectifying mechanism, probably a tunnel rectification. At room temperature, the dominant detection mechanism changes from photothermoelectric to, probably, a resistive self-mixing mechanism.

• We have shown that the photodetecting properties (voltage and current responsivity, equivalent noise power) of the detector based on lateral p-n junction in bilayer graphene enhance

in several times (from 3 to 20) with electrical induction of band gap from 0 meV to 20-25 meV at sub-THz irradiation.

• We have presented a polarization-resolving infrared room-temperature detection method on the 'graphene-metal' junction. We showed that the photodetector is operational when using commercial scalable CVD graphene of low quality (^ ~ 103cm2/V/s).

• We have demonstrated the reversible in-situ electrical tuning of ultra-narrow phonon-polariton resonances in 'gated graphene - hBN nano-resonator' structures. The resonances were tuned by transverse electric field, which changed the carrier concentration in graphene.

Theoretical and Practical Importance

The practical value of the dissertation results lies in the investigation of new types of THz and IR

photodetectors, which has a huge implication for the development of commercial photodetectors.

The new types of terahertz and infrared photodetectors explored could offer potentially superior performance in terms of responsivity, noise equivalent power and range, which are key parameters in many applications including imaging, communication, and spectroscopy. The research constitutes a major step towards prototyping commercial photodetectors that meet the increasing demands of diverse sectors, ranging from communication and health to security and space exploration.

Presentations and Validation of Research Results

This thesis' findings were presented at the following conferences and seminars:

1. EP2DS-24/MSS-20, Toyama, Japan, 11/2021

2. XV Russian conference on semiconductor physics, Nizhny Novgorod, 3-7 October 2022

3. The 5-th International Conference TERAHERTZ AND MICROWAVE RADIATION: GENERATION, DETECTION AND APPLICATIONS, TERA 2023, 27 February - 2 March 2023, Moscow, Russia

4. 65th All-Russian Scientific Conference of the MIPT in honor of the 115th anniversary of L.D. Landau, Dolgoprudny, April 2023

5. 11th International Conference on Materials for Advanced Technologies (ICMAT 2023), Singapore, June 2023

6. 11th International Symposium on Optics and its Applications (OPTICS 11), Yerevan, Armenia, July 2023

Publications

Based on the materials of the dissertation, 3 publications were published, including 3 papers in international journals indexed in Scopus and Web of Science.

Published papers:

[79] (Indexed in Scopus) 1. Elena Titova, Dmitry Mylnikov, Mikhail Kashchenko, Ilya Safonov, Sergey Zhukov, Kirill Dzhikirba, Kostya Novoselov, Denis Bandurin, Georgy Alymov, and Dmitry Svintsov "Ultralow-noise terahertz detection by p-n junctions in gapped bilayer graphene" - ACS Nano 2023, 17, 9, 8223-8232.

[80] (Indexed in Scopus) 2. Valentin Semkin, Dmitry Mylnikov, Elena Titova, Sergey Zhukov, and Dmitry Svintsov "Gate-controlled polarization-resolving mid-infrared detection at metal-graphene junctions", Applied Physics Letters, 120, 191107 (2022).

[81] (Indexed in Scopus) 3. Jiahua Duan, Francisco Javier Alfaro-Mozaz, Javier Taboada-Gutiérrez, Irene Dolado, Gonzalo Álvarez-Pérez, Elena Titova, Andrei Bylinkin, Ana Isabel F. Tresguerres-Mata, Javier Martín-Sánchez, Song Liu, James H. Edgar, Denis A. Bandurin, Pablo Jarillo-Herrero, Rainer Hillenbrand, Alexey Y. Nikitin, Pablo Alonso-González "Active and Passive Tuning of Ultranarrow Resonances in Polaritonic Nanoantennas", Advanced Materials, 2022, 34, 2104954.

Personal Contribution

[79], Chapter 3 . I conducted the measurements, analyzed the results, wrote the paper, participated in formulation of the problem, establishing the technology of sample fabrication and planning the experiments.

[80], Chapter 4 . I fabricated the samples, participated in the planning the experiments and analyzation of the results.

[81], Chapter 5 . I fabricated the samples, set up and carried out the electrical part of the measurements, participated in near-field measurements and analyzation of the results.

Thesis Structure

The thesis consist of introduction, 5 chapters, conclusion, a list of 185 references and 1 Appendix.

The total size of the dissertation is 165 pages including 146 pages of the main text and 19 pages of

titles and contents. The thesis includes 104 figures and 3 tables.

Заключение диссертации по теме «Другие cпециальности», Титова Елена Игоревна

Conclusion

In conclusion, this dissertation has brought to light extensive data supporting the potential of graphene in advancing the field of optoelectronics, particularly for terahertz and infrared photodetection.

The comprehensive exploration and remarkable discovery in this research field have paved the way for further advancements in building highly responsive, energy efficient and miniaturized photodetectors. However, it must be noted that there are still challenges to address and numerous perspectives to explore. Future work should focus on further enhancing the efficiency of graphene-based photodetectors and addressing practical issues related to device fabrication and stability.

The thesis consists of three main parts - terahertz photodetection in gapped dilayer graphene, infrared polarization-sensitive photodetection on CVD graphene, and active tuning of phonon-polaritons in hBN nanoresonators via graphene.

The main results of the thesis cire 81S follow:

• We investigated the sub-THz photoresponse in BLG-based detectors with gate-induced p-n junction focusing on the gapped state of the channel. We found that introduction of a gap results in enhanced responisivty, both for rectified current and rectified voltage. At operating temperatures of ~ 25 K, the responsivity at 20 meV band gap is from 3 to 20 times larger than that in the gapless state. The maximum voltage responsivity of our devices at 0.13 THz illumination exceeds 50 kV/W, while the noise equivalent power falls down to 36 fW /Hz1/2. The observed sign and pattern of photovoltage with varying the carrier densities at cryogenic temperatures (T ^ 25 K) can be explained by the photo-thermoelectric scenario. At the same time, we evidenced the enhancement of photovoltage as the doping under the two top gates is opposite to that in near-contact regions. This feature may be attributed to an additional rectification mechanism, like, for instance, rectification by tunnel junctions at the contacts. Instructively, at room temperature (T ^ 300 K), the overall sign of photoresponse changes. This indicates the dominance of non-thermoelectric rectification mechanisms, presumably, resistive self-mixing.

• We have shown that gate- and polarization-dependent response of a graphene-metal junction at mid-infrared wavelengths has several features enabling the polarization-resolving action. We shown the presence of carrier density n* (set by the gate) at which the detector response

is insensitive to the light polarization. This working point can be used for power calibration of the device. At other carrier densities (n > n* or n < n*, depending on metal), the photoresponse has strong polarization sensitivity. Operation at these densities, after power calibration, can be used for determination of the polarization angle 9.

• We have demonstrated active tuning of ultranarrow resonances in phononic nanoresonators, namely hBN squares with a nanoscale cross-section. Our nanoimaging experiments and numerical simulations reveal sharp resonances with linewidths of around 9 cm-1 (Q ~ 165), which generate puzzling near-field patterns that allow shrinking mid-infrared light (of incident wavelength A0) to subwavelength dimensions (~ A0/42). We demonstrated the realization of actively tunable nanoresonators with ultranarrow resonances (linewidths of ~ 20 cm-1, i.e., one order of magnitude smaller than the typical linewidths in active graphene nanoresonators) by placing them on top of gated graphene in which we vary the Fermi energy. Our results establish the basis for the control of polaritonic resonances in nanoresonators made of hyperbolic materials, while the combination of refractive-index sensitivity and active tunability of ultranarrow resonances opens exciting prospects for biosensing and the realization of tunable strong coupling phenomena at the nanoscale.

Overall, this study has greatly contributed to the understanding of optoelectronic properties of graphene-based structures, providing a solid foundation for realizing next-generation photodetection technologies.

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